USA History of Space Flights [Part II. Present Presence]

After exploring USA History of Space Flights [Part I. Pioneering Past], let's go into the second part. We already glanced at the glorious past of spacefaring ambitions, and now it's time to shift our gaze towards the contemporary space industry. Don't expect flying cars or sentient robots just yet, but what we do have is a tangible industry born out of ambitious dreams.

When I bring up this topic with friends and colleagues, a prevailing sentiment emerges—somewhat dull and detached. There's a belief that not much is currently unfolding in the realm of space exploration. True, we haven't discovered extraterrestrial civilizations, landed on distant planets, or established a lunar base. But! Like any groundbreaking advancement, the initial awe fades over time, taking with it appreciation for the ongoing achievements.

So, in this post, let's shift our focus to the modest (satellites) and the monumental (International Space Station) objects that subtly enhance our daily lives.

Objects that have been intentionally put into orbit

Even nowadays, many people associate satellites with military applications or disconnected-from-real-life purposes. However, it is far from accurate. In reality, satellite services have become an almost invisible part of our daily lives, with almost everyone benefiting from them at least once a day.

The presence of 8,377 satellites (as of Janury 2024) orbiting Earth may seem like too much, but their purpose is simple: to enable smooth and instantaneous communication. In an era with billions of smart devices and an overwhelming volume of data, satellites help with rapid connectivity. Communication satellites operate by receiving radio signals from ground-based antennas, amplifying them, and then relaying them back to Earth.

The question naturally arises: Why go for satellites when we can arrange similar radio transmissions on Earth? The answer lies in the nature of radio signals, which travel in straight lines and cannot bend around the curvature of the Earth. This limitation requires the strategic placement of communication satellites, typically positioned directly above the Earth's equator. This specific location and altitude allow a satellite to move in tandem with the planet's rotation, ensuring a constant and uninterrupted connection with ground-based antennas.

Much like many technological innovations, our satellites mimic nature. Usually, emulating natural principles proves to be the most effective way to achieve functionality. Just picture aircraft designs that mirror the structure of birds' bodies. Satellites follow a similar pattern, aligning with the principles of gravitation and the structure of space-time.

In our vast solar system, large cosmic bodies have satellites—smaller planetary bodies trapped within the gravitational pull of their celestial "master". This gravitational relationship helps stabilize the trajectory of the planet. While Earth has only one natural satellite, the Moon, more massive planets, such as Jupiter, own an entire fleet moons, numbering as many as 67 in Jupiter's case.

In contrast, artificial satellites orbit our planet primarily under the influence of one force: gravity. When a satellite reaches sufficient velocity, it enters a perpetual "fall" toward Earth. However, the curvature of the Earth ensures that instead of plummeting back to the surface, the satellite continually falls around our planet, following an orbit.

Sadly, a lot of objects in Earth's orbit consist of orbital debris and defunct satellites, turning the low-earth orbit into a congested zone, just like the terrestrial jammed areas :(

Satellites with higher purposes

Beyond commercial applications, there exist categories of satellites dedicated to more noble pursuits. These include satellites aiding in the prediction of weather anomalies and those positioned to peer deeply into the vastness of the universe. The most awe-inspiring insights come from astronomical satellites that have the sharpest eye.

Even though the Hubble Space Telescope has gained all the glory for its mesmerizing images of distant galaxies, there were 34 operational telescopes in space as of 2020. Why do we need so many and how they differ?

Well, let’s start from the very beginning - the electromagnetic spectrum, comprising of all types of EM radiation. Visible light, which allows us to perceive the world, and radio waves from broadcasting stations are just two examples of radiation; there are five more. Telescopes are designed to capture various frequency ranges within this spectrum. However, Earth's thick atmosphere, which has made the planet habitable for us, simultaneously poses a challenge by obstructing telescopes from observing certain phenomena from our vantage point on Earth.

The technology powering Mr. Hubble is rather straightforward; the telescope's mirror captures light from distant stars and galaxies. Its beautiful observations played a key role in revolutionary astrophysical breakthroughs. These breakthroughs demonstrated that the universe isn't slowing down under the influence of gravity; instead, it is accelerating, a phenomenon yet to be fully explained.

Mr. Hubble's contributions extend to exposing insights about the age of the universe (estimated at 13.7 billion years), confirming the presence of black holes in the centers of galaxies, and providing images of galaxies located billions of light years away. These findings have added significant value to numerous scientific papers.

The answer to the question why we need so many of them is – for different goals. First, each telescope may specialize in a specific wavelength range, such as X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, or infrared. Second, some may be dedicated to cosmological studies, such as measuring the expansion rate of the universe, while others focus on the search for exoplanets, the characterization of atmospheres, or the exploration of specific astronomical phenomena.

ISS (International Space Station), the king of satellites and scientific research

Not limited to small and narrowly specialized satellites, we also have the king of all satellites – the International Space Station (ISS). Functioning as an extensive scientific laboratory, the ISS has been orbiting Earth since 1998, assembled for the first time in space. This collaborative project was initiated through a memorandum of understanding between NASA (USA) and Roscosmos (Russia). Later, the European Space Agency, Canada, and Japan joined the collaboration, alongside ten other countries making smaller contributions.

Since its assembly in 1998, the International Space Station (ISS) has been continually occupied by a rotating crew of six astronauts from various countries, each with different specializations. It functions as a primary experimental platform in diverse fields: astrobiology, astronomy, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, meteorology, and human research, space medicine + life sciences.

Given that radiation is one of the most significant hazards during prolonged space missions, astronauts typically spend no more than several months aboard the ISS (with some exceptions). Essentially, the ISS serves as an extensive "flying" laboratory dedicated to investigating the effects of space on human health. It's a stepping stone for future solar system exploration dependant on verifying humans' ability to withstand the challenges of the cosmos.

Beyond its primary focus on human health, the ISS is home to a myriad of other experiments related to space exploration. These experiments involve activities such as growing plants and rodents, testing 3D printers, and detecting dark matter.

Medical research conducted on the ISS contributes valuable insights into the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, addressing issues like muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shifts resulting from microgravity. To counteract these effects, crew members are required to engage in two compulsory hours of exercise each day to maintain muscle activity. Moreover, extended stays in space can lead to permanent changes, as confirmed by a famous twin study.

Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a year on the ISS, while his twin brother remained on Earth. Thorough analysis of the study results revealed changes in Scott's gene expression as a response to prolonged radiation exposure.

What it's like to live and work without gravity?

While the idea of floating in space at a colossal speed of 8 kilometers per second and witnessing 15 sunsets and sunrises each day may sound fascinating, life aboard the International Space Station (ISS) involves rigorous work following a strict and familiar 8-hour daily routine, with some free weekends.

Eating experience with a view

Eating in space is still carrying the burden of stereotypes born back in the day: some unappetizing paste-like foods that astronauts suck in with disgust. Well, it was like that in the 1960s. Nowadays, ISS residents enjoy a variety of culinary delights, including beef stroganoff, macaroni and cheese, Japanese noodles, brownies, and even freshly brewed espresso from a customized Lavazza coffee machine designed specifically for the ISS.

Is space food vastly different from what we have on Earth? Not really. The biggest challenge lies in harmonizing a nutritious diet of approximately 2000 calories with the stringent requirements of delivering, packaging, and consuming it in a weightless environment. In the 1960s, astronauts were limited to paste-like food from tubes because it was uncertain if humans could eat and swallow in zero gravity. Since then, gastronomic experiences have improved through trial and error.

Take, for instance, the time when bread was initially introduced aboard the ISS, and crumbs were scattered everywhere. How dangerous could it be? Quite hazardous. In a zero-gravity environment, minuscule crumbs float freely, posing risks to equipment functionality and human health as they can infiltrate sensitive areas such as filters or airways. The same concern applies to liquids. That’s why astronauts enjoy their drinks solely through straws from plastic bags.

The food routine on the ISS is both modern and multicultural, demonstrating the collaboration of various nations on this floating scientific laboratory. The only difference between what one might order in a restaurant and on the ISS lie in the packaging and storage (well, not just one, but two). There is no fridge here and meal transportation itself is a bit of a bugger. The journey began with freeze-dried food, brought back to life through rehydration (injecting water into food packages). With the introduction of thermostabilized pouches, some food could be kept moist and ready-to-be-consumed.

In the present day, the array of food options is beyond description, transforming the work trip to the ISS into a once-in-a-lifetime adventure, complete with impressive food packages.

Personal hygiene matters

After a long day of work and eating, finding relief in personal hygiene on the ISS is not as straightforward as it is on Earth—it requires much effort. Maintaining personal hygiene on the ISS is challenging due to the effects of zero gravity and the constraints of limited space.

One common question is about the bathroom routines while orbiting Earth. With no gravity to assist waste removal, ISS residents rely on an extra helping hand from a space toilet airflow. Besides the absence of the natural sensation to use the facilities, astronauts must actively engage by securing themselves and activating a fan-driven suction system.

By the way, in October 2020, NASA upgraded the facilities with a new $23 million titanium toilet designed to be more accommodating for women. Prior to this, there were two separate toilets—one for the American module and another for the Russian module.

How about a relaxing shower after all that suction business? Not today, sorry. There is no shower on the ISS because of limited space and scarce water. Instead, astronauts rely on space-friendly wet wipes for personal hygiene. Taking one, placing it in a package with warm water, and using it for wiping serves as a substitute. Even the process of washing one's hair involves a fast and efficient application of shampoo with just a handful of water droplets. As the water evaporates from the hair, it transforms into humidity in the air, collected by the air conditioning system into condensate.

Perhaps the most interesting and somewhat off-putting psychological barrier to overcome is the recycling of liquids, where today's coffee becomes tomorrow's coffee. Yes, drinking water on the ISS primarily comes from recycled liquids, with urine being the major contributor. On the bright side, there's no need for laundry on Sundays; dirty clothes are placed in the disposal module and sent into the atmosphere, where they are successfully burned along with other waste from the station.

Do your homework and exercise well: prepping for an ISS journey

Going on an Earthless business trip of a lifetime is a demanding commitment calling for years of training. I want to mention again that that series of space-related posts was born as a result of my staggering trip to NASA centers organized by the New Scientist magazine. Sooooo, I was lucky enough to visit the actual NASA Space Vehicle Mockup Facility in Houston – an astronaut training center featuring mockups of all ISS modules, equipment, and technology.

Understanding how everything functions, anticipating potential issues, and mastering emergency procedures is crucial in space, where traditional outside help is unavailable. That’s why space training is complex and extensive, including medical tests, physical conditioning, extra-vehicular activity (EVA) training, procedure drills, rehabilitation processes, and specific training on experiments to be conducted during the space mission.

The initial training covers fundamental aspects such as basic space station systems, spacewalking, and operating the robotic arm. For those fortunate enough to be selected, this training continues while awaiting a mission assignment. Once assigned to a flight, mission-specific training can span up to three years, depending on the complexity of the tasks involved. For ISS missions, proficiency in Russian is compulsory, adding additional time to the training process due to the linguistic and geographical distinctions between the English and Russian modules and compass points.

Houston, we’ve got a problem!

Another critical component enabling the magic of the ISS is the network of control centers. Each mission stage has a dedicated facility with its own teams and responsibilities. The Launch Control Center (LCC) at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida plays a vital role in ensuring the safe liftoff procedures of massive rockets carrying astronauts to the ISS.

Simultaneously, the Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, which I had the incredible opportunity to visit, is responsible for monitoring every aspect of the ongoing mission. In this facility, hundreds of professionals dedicate 75% of their time to coordination and organization, with the remaining 25% focused on mission control. There is another Mission Control Center in Russia overseeing their segment of the space station. This densely packed room filled with monitors and various devices hosts a diverse team of experts, from doctors to engineers to flight directors, who meticulously monitor all conceivable telemetry, including altitude, propulsion, and even astronauts' heartbeats.

To get a taste of the superhuman level of responsibility these individuals behind the screens manage - just read an excerpt from the book compiled by a team of the ISS flight directors The International Space Station: Operating an Outpost in the New Frontier (free to download *_____*)

At 2:49 a.m. Central Standard Time, a red alarm illuminated the giant front wall display in Mission Control in Houston. The alert read: TOXIC ATMOSPHERE Node 2 LTL IFHX NH3 Leak Detected. The meaning was clear. Ammonia was apparently leaking into the Interface Heat Exchanger (IFHX) of the Low Temperature cooling Loop (LTL) in the Node 2 module.

This was not a drill. When the red alarm appeared, the flight director turned her full attention to ETHOS. Of the many failures for which the flight control team prepares, especially in simulations, this failure presents one of the most life-threatening situations, and one the team never wants to encounter on the actual vehicle.

Data on the ETHOS console indicated toxic ammonia could be bleeding in from the external loops, through the waterbased IFHX, and into the cabin. Software on the ISS immediately turned off the fans and closed the vents between all modules to prevent the spread of ammonia. At the sound of the alarm, crew members immediately began their memorized response of getting to the Russian Segment (considered a safe haven, since that segment does not have ammonia systems) and closed the hatch that connected to the United States On-orbit Segment (USOS). They took readings with a sensitive sensor to determine the level of ammonia in the cabin.

The flight control team—especially the flight director, ETHOS, and the capsule communicator CAPCOM [a holdover term from the early days of the space program]—waited anxiously for the results while they looked for clues in the data to see how much, if any, ammonia was entering the cabin. No ammonia was detected in the cabin of the Russian Segment. In fact, it was starting to look as if an unusual computer problem was providing incorrect readings, resulting in a false alarm.

After looking carefully at the various indications and starting up an internal thermal loop pump, the team verified that no ammonia had leaked into the space station. The crew was not in danger. After 9 hours, the flight control team allowed the crew back inside the USOS. However, during the “false ammonia event,” as it came to be called, the team’s vigilance, discipline, and confidence came through. No panicking. Only measured responses to quickly exchange information and instructions.

Okay, so what do we know so far?

It’s 2020 on my calendar right now, which marks 63 years of our continuous and close relationship with space. While aliens and flying cars may not be part of our current reality, it's worth pausing before dismissing the following facts as unexciting:

• The universe is approximately 14 billion years old, but the concept of a multiverse suggests the existence of innumerable space-time disconnected regions, each potentially constituting its own universe with unique laws of physics.
• In space, there is no universal "now" due to its vastness. When the Hubble Space Telescope observed distant galaxies, it captured images from billions of years in the past, reflecting the time it takes for light to reach us.
• The expansion of the universe is accelerating, and the mysterious force driving this acceleration is termed dark energy.
• Black holes, once theoretical, were visually confirmed in 2019, and it's now understood that every galaxy harbors a black hole at its center.
• Many innovations developed for space missions, such as the computer mouse, portable laptops, wireless headsets, and phone cameras, have found commercial success.
• Mars, our planetary neighbor, was once habitable until its atmosphere was lost. In the 21st century, ambitious minds, advanced technology, and significant investments are actively working towards transforming the dream of Mars colonization into reality.

As we look forward to the future of space exploration, let’s explore the potential scenarios that might unfold in the upcoming post – "Fantastic Future" ;)

See you there.